Electrochemical cells, and more specifically, rechargeable batteries comprising
lithium anodes for use in water and / or air environments, as well as non-aqueous and non-air environments, are presented. In one embodiment, an
electrochemical cell includes an
anode comprising
lithium and a multi-
layered structure positioned between the
anode and an
electrolyte of the
cell. A multi-
layered structure can include at least a first single-
ion conductive material layer (e.g., a lithiated
metal layer), and at least a first polymeric layer positioned between the
anode and the single-
ion conductive material. The invention also can provide an
electrode stabilization layer positioned within the
electrode, i.e., between one portion and another portion of an
electrode, to control depletion and re-plating of
electrode material upon
charge and discharge of a battery. Advantageously, electrochemical cells comprising combinations of structures described herein are not only compatible with environments that are typically unsuitable for
lithium, but the cells may be also capable of displaying long cycle life, high lithium
cycling efficiency, and
high energy density.