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An analytical model simulates the propagation of radiation through a coated continuous web where layer thickness and refractive index, as variables, determine the speed and direction of transmitted radiation. The model predicts characteristics of transmitted radiation based on characteristics of incident radiation and initially assigned values for layer thicknesses. Coating thickness(s) are ascertained in a process whereby incident radiation of known characteristics is directed onto a coated web and thereafter, actual measurements of transmitted radiation are compared to predicted characteristics. Using a fitting algorithm, the assigned thickness(es) of the layer(s) of the model are adjusted and the process repeated until the actual and predicted values are within desired limits at which time, the assigned thickness(es) represent the measured calipers. Radiation measurements are obtained using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy apparatus that creates a continuous reference whereby a sample pulses' phase and amplitude can be tracked and corrected.

A digital hydrometer and methods of digitally displaying a specific gravity measured by a hydrometer are provided. The digital hydrometer can comprise a base, a displacement vessel, an inductive distance sensor, an output circuit, and a hydrometer float. The displacement vessel and inductive distance sensor can be mounted in or on the base. The displacement vessel can hold a displacement fluid. The hydrometer float can float in the displacement fluid. The output circuit can be in electrical communication with the inductive distance sensor and comprise a digital display device configured to display a digital value that is commensurate with a change in impedance attributable to the proximity of a metallic object, in the hydrometer float, to the sensor or its inductor. The digital value can be a specific gravity of the displacement fluid.

A method for locating partial discharges occurring at a discharge site (2) in an electric apparatus (3) with elongate geometry and generating corresponding electric pulses (4) propagating in opposite directions along the apparatus (3) from the discharge site (2) comprises the steps of detecting (11) the electric pulses (4) picked up by a first and a second sensor (5, 7), operatively connected to the apparatus (3) and spaced out along it, and generating corresponding electric signals representative of the waveform of the pulses (4), selecting (12) at least one pair of signals, detected in the consecutive sensors (5, 7), and representative of a pair of homologous pulses (4), relating to the same partial discharge and propagating in opposite directions along the apparatus, deriving, for the signals of the selected pair of homologous pulses (4), at least one attenuation parameter, correlated with a quantity that is variable depending on the distance travelled by the pulses (4), calculating (13) the distance between the discharge site (2) and the sensors, based on processing the values of the attenuation parameter for the signals of the selected pair of homologous pulses (4).